The purpose of these supports is to make the listener understand the consequences of the action they are being commanded to do. Recommending that you spray your tomatoes with a dilute solution of aspirin. The research evidence is that it improves their blight resistance. But However, he seems to have been open-minded and interested in the idea of God. Socrates was a thinker who had many questions about the existence of God. After some time, the same societys feelings change, and what they considered immoral becomes the accepted norm. Also called: boo-hurrah This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. to help you write a unique paper. [4] But is this impossibly difficult if we consider the kinds of things that count as virtue and vice? Need a custom Essay sample written from scratch by Ethical sentences do not express propositions. For example, is like; Martin loves dogs, but Mary doesnt. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". Moral judgments are not in fact discrete explosions of feeling: they have logical linkages. What is causing the plague in Thebes and how can it be fixed? I like carrots; you dont. Situation ethics. Stevenson called the primary such method "'persuasive,' in a somewhat broadened sense", and wrote: [Persuasion] depends on the sheer, direct emotional impact of wordson emotive meaning, rhetorical cadence, apt metaphor, stentorian, stimulating, or pleading tones of voice, dramatic gestures, care in establishing rapport with the hearer or audience, and so on. WebSobre ns What are ethical values Recommended Core Ethical ValuesIntegrity, including. The important aspect of the appraisal theory is that it accounts for individual variances of emotional reactions to the same event.. Logical arguments involve showing a conclusion from premises. To say that Murder is wrong is to express ones disapproval of murder. Emotivism is of the view that statements can be used to alter and control the attitude of other human beings (Feinberg & Shafer-Landau, 2008). Aristotle believed that emotions were natural and necessary aspects of human life. We can provide good reasons why x is right or x is wrong. must. A noncognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that "moral judgments are capable of being objectively true, because they describe some feature of the world". In 1710, George Berkeley wrote that language in general often serves to inspire feelings as well as communicate ideas. On the other hand, arent I doing more? According to Emotivism, moral language is not fact-stating language; it is not typically used to convey information. 7. Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/emotivism-ethics/, Ethical Leadership and the Creation of an Ethical Organization, Making Ethical Decisions as Decisions That do not Include Ethical Elements, Freuds Interpretation of Little Hans Phobia, Analyses and interpretation of short story 2BRO2B Analysis, Dark Skin and Colorism An Interpretation of Beauty, The contribution of Dietrich Bonhoeffers Interpretation of the Old Testament, The Interpretation of Truth, Honor, and Integrity. What is the Emotivism of ethics? Emotivism can be considered a form of non-cognitivism or expressivism. And whenever I give reasons, Im doing more than just expressing emotions; Im assuming that there is more to moral claims than emotions. A. Richards in their 1923 book on language, The Meaning of Meaning, and by W. H. F. Barnes and A. Duncan-Jones in independent works on ethics in 1934. WebThe thesis of Emotivism, a species of nondescriptivism, is that there is more to the meaning of moral statements than syntax and truth conditions; in particular, moral statements have an expressive, and a causative aspect. Emotivism also argues that even if I [1][2][3] Hence, it is colloquially known as the hurrah/boo theory. It conveys that statements are simply not just that but an expression of attitude. "Ethical Subjectivism and Emotivism in Society." The questions of whose survival, and for how long, as well as the extreme difficulty in answering such questions makes the determination of good moral rules very, very difficult, but weve got billions of years of behaviour to analyse for clues. All rights reserved. Pairing Stalin with Cheney, in fact, is an subjective assertion, not an expression of feeling or attitude (Emotivism). An example of this is going on a first date. But I was never an emotivist, though I have often been called one. requirements? In Emotivism a moral statement isnt literally a statement about the speakers feelings on the topic, but expresses those feelings with emotive force. It allows debate on certain statements based on the underlying attitude. It conveys that statements Twenty years earlier, Sir William David Ross offered much the same criticism in his book Foundations of Ethics. And when we disagree, Stevenson said we have a disagreement in attitude. What is the difference between emotivism and quasi-realism? Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that claims that ethical sentences do not express propositions but emotional attitudes. Influenced by the growth o We utilize security vendors that protect and This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Now consider the following: Both are exclamatory statements that are neither true nor false and have no cognitive content. However, the same study in the same companies and locations ten years later reveals the perception of dreadlocks as indecent, has gradually gone down. Similarly, if you say that polygamy is wrong, then on this view we should understand what youve just said as some- thing like Boo to Polygamy! It has helped humans create their own understanding of the world around them and has played a significant role in their development as a society. There is only true or false n its evaluation (Rachels & Rachels, 2010). 0000000016 00000 n Emotivism does not interpret moral judgments as statements that are true or false; it represents expressions of attitude, therefore, people cannot be infallible. Graduateway.com is owned and operated by Radioplus Experts Ltd Ayer argues that moral judgments cannot be translated into non-ethical, empirical terms and thus cannot be verified; in this he agrees with ethical intuitionists. Logic is the study of how things are connected. emotivism, In metaethics (see ethics), the view that moral judgments do not function as statements of fact but rather as expressions of the speakers or writers feelings. Pure utilitarianism is unbounded. It does not place any limitations based on things like inalienable rights or human autonomy. It deals only in ave Whether or not God exists has always been a question for theologians and philosophers alike. Could not goodrationality and reason as opposed to bad irrationality and crazy/violent/ dissipated living also be described as also an emotive response ultimately? Now, why would one think that moral language is just a disguised emotional expression? "[30] The first half of the sentence is a proposition, but the imperative half is not, so Stevenson's translation of an ethical sentence remains a noncognitive one. R. M. Hare unfolded his ethical theory of universal prescriptivism[17] in 1952's The Language of Morals, intending to defend the importance of rational moral argumentation against the "propaganda" he saw encouraged by Stevenson, who thought moral argumentation was sometimes psychological and not rational. Copyright 2022 service.graduateway.com. There is no way to resolve our attitudinal disagreements unless we are persuasive enough (or violent enough). What does the winner of Ninja Warrior win? Hence, it is colloquially known as the hurrah/boo When an emotivist says murder is wrong its like saying down with murder or murder, yecch! I am simply evincing my moral disapproval of it. Jump to navigation Jump to search. emotivism. 0000011843 00000 n 1. The latter affects more people and can influence them than a simple subjective statement. But the emotivist claims there is no truth or falsity to moral judgments whatsoever! [6], Emotivism can be considered a form of non-cognitivism or expressivism. This seems to completely undermine emotivism. 0000001137 00000 n Emotivism doesnt believe in right or wrong it looks at an argument based on the driving emotion behind the statement. The same analysis applies to any moral judgment. Replace justice and fairness with safety and equality. Without justice.one is wandering around with the knowledge that the injustice they suffered [43], James Urmson's 1968 book The Emotive Theory of Ethics also disagreed with many of Stevenson's points in Ethics and Language, "a work of great value" with "a few serious mistakes [that] led Stevenson consistently to distort his otherwise valuable insights".[44]. 0000006912 00000 n It is far more subtle and Registered address: Louki Akrita, 23 Bellapais Court, Flat/Office 46 1100, Nicosia, Cyprus For example, a simple subjectivist would contend that when Mr. Banana says eating fruits is immoral, he is just stating his attitude; hes merely saying that he, Mr. Banana, rejects the idea of eating fruit. Broadly speaking, the term expressivism refers to a family of views in the philosophy of language according to which the meanings of claims in a particular area of discourse are to be understood in terms of whatever non-cognitive mental states those claims are supposed to express. For example, I think global warming is natural but my friend thinks its a result of environmental degradation. But we should look carefully at the crucial move in that argument, and query the suggestion that someone might happen not to want anything for which he would need the use of hands or eyes. Here are a few things that helped me 1. Work on Something Youre Excited About When I was a manager at Target in my early 20s, my work ethic was, For comments, queries, and suggestions, kindly visit our Facebook Page and Facebook accounts. [12] In his 1751 book An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, Hume considered morality not to be related to fact but "determined by sentiment": In moral deliberations we must be acquainted beforehand with all the objects, and all their relations to each other; and from a comparison of the whole, fix our choice or approbation. But he differs from intuitionists by discarding appeals to intuition as "worthless" for determining moral truths,[22] since the intuition of one person often contradicts that of another. In 2018 a movie came out about Dick Cheney, called VICE highly recommended. There is no doubt that such words as 'you ought to do so-and-so' may be used as one's means of so inducing a person to behave a certain way. (3) Ethical statements are synthetic, not analytic that is, they arent true by definition. IvyPanda. We may argue about certain ethical views but its hard to substantiate our arguments based on some sort of proof. However, positivism is not essential to emotivism itself, perhaps not even in Ayers form, and some positivists in the Vienna Circle, which had great influence on Ayer, held non-emotivist views. [citation needed], In the 1950s, emotivism appeared in a modified form in the universal prescriptivism of R. M. Emotivism is a theory that claims that moral language or judgments: 1) are neither true or false; 2) express our emotions; and 3) try to influence others to agree with us. Ross suggests that the emotivist theory seems to be coherent only when dealing with simple linguistic acts, such as recommending, commanding, or passing judgement on something happening at the same point of time as the utterance. cite it correctly. 2022. EMOTIVE THEORY OF ETHICS. The term emotivism refers to a theory about moral judgments, sentences, words, and speech acts; it is sometimes also extended to cover aesthetic and other nonmoral forms of evaluation. Although sometimes used to refer to the entire genus, strictly speaking emotivism is the name of only the earliest version of ethical noncognitivism (also known as expressivism and The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". Ethical subjectivism is of the view that these judgments are limited to perceptions. This doesnt mean that the statement is incorrect, but rather you may have been facing a skeptic crowd (Rachels & Rachels, 2010). Emotivism is a theory that claims that moral language or judgments: 1) are neither true or false; 2) express our emotions; and 3) try to influence others to agree with us. Do so as well. are sent, Notes in Ethics:10 THINGS ABOUT EMOTIVISM IN ETHICS @. This question has been debated by many for centuries, with no clear answer. If I say that Mother Theresa was a good woman, Im expressing my emotions, trying to influence you, and Im making a moral judgment. One way to put the difference is that Emotivism and Quasi-Realism differ in how a reasonable person should interpret the moral claims of others, like stealing is wrong. an Emotivist, treat that statement as merely an expression of Jills feelings about stealing, comparable to booo, stealing or yuck, stealing.. Your privacy is extremely important to us. HtSMo0+1YA U=JV\!VyI(^{3(%eRQL$J'yTPzGZcECrbZ|Ch\Q3FM"[Jp*R-JrBS97 nh-S JJJ{Y%,y/CjcS2YtVy/5uCSI,WFu@|s}SV4`4~r4 +:M x]6X gI |DM 7g8;`yslhq%bFy@V68 6)Q:j\z=HbS{+s}xC qBZ/~u t Oi%>>miI8{'wy>'F[L!N. The approbation or blame which then ensues, cannot be the work of the judgement, but of the heart; and is not a speculative proposition or affirmation, but an active feeling or sentiment. However, it may be that Edward recognized the wallet as belonging to a friend, to whom he promptly returned it. According to But I was never an emotivist, though I have often been called one. Do moral judgments express emotions, exclusively? Logic allows us to understand how things work, and it can be used to prove or disprove ideas. WebEmotivism did a bad job of explaining the important role of rational argument in moral practice, however. The debate around this issue is complex and ongoing. Early forms of emotivism branded this appearance as sheer illusion and proclaimed the complete subjectivity of ethical utterances. 0000008838 00000 n Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. In as much as ethics cannot be divorced from emotions, we need to be guided more by reason if we are to capture the true sense of moral thinking. And if I say that Stalin or Cheney were bad menwhich they wereIm merely trying to get you to agree with what Im really saying. According to Aristotle, there are three types of arguments: logical, physical, and ethical. If Moore is wrong in saying that there are actual disagreements of value, we are left with the claim that there are actual disagreements of fact, and Ayer accepts this without hesitation: If our opponent concurs with us in expressing moral disapproval of a given type t, then we may get him to condemn a particular action A, by bringing forward arguments to show that A is of type t. For the question whether A does or does not belong to that type is a plain question of fact.[24]. 0000001467 00000 n Others argue that God is not logically bound and can do whatever he wants. Others believe that logic can be used to hurt people, and that it should only be used when there are clear rules to follow. This is dangerous because it means that people cant make good decisions based on their own values or beliefs, but must rely on the opinions of others. https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/emotivism_1.shtml Emotional relativism is a form of relativism that allows emotions to be the only factor considered when making decisions. "[25][26] An analytic philosopher, Stevenson suggested in his 1937 essay "The Emotive Meaning of Ethical Terms" that any ethical theory should explain three things: that intelligent disagreement can occur over moral questions, that moral terms like good are "magnetic" in encouraging action, and that the scientific method is insufficient for verifying moral claims. Certain cultural or individual feelings do vary and are the main feeder for moral views of that particular time. "[53], An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, Emotivism, Intuitionism and Prescriptivism, Emotivism definition in philosophyprofessor.com, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&oldid=1095047675, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2019, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, "Propositions that express definitions of ethical terms, or judgements about the legitimacy or possibility of certain definitions", "Propositions describing the phenomena of moral experience, and their causes", This page was last edited on 26 June 2022, at 02:38. 0000016330 00000 n Aristotle also believed that emotions were not caused by external factors, but rather by our own internal feelings and thoughts. 0000006504 00000 n 13 January. In 1710, George Berkeley wrote that language in general often serves to inspire feelings as well as communicate ideas. [28] Where Ayer spoke of values, or fundamental psychological inclinations, Stevenson speaks of attitudes, and where Ayer spoke of disagreement of fact, or rational disputes over the application of certain values to a particular case, Stevenson speaks of differences in belief; the concepts are the same. 0000002340 00000 n Some code of ethics examples include integrity, selflessness, honesty, loyalty, equality, fairness, empathy, Emotivism. He believed that humans are inherently emotional and that emotions, in turn, have a powerful impact on individuals and cultures. 1. The movie demonstrates Cheneys evil personality, and how the position of vice president to George Bush enabled him to reshape the world. Emotivism explains, and it is correct at that, that language has other uses aside from, 6. If the date is perceived as positive, one might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, and/or anticipation, because they have appraised this event as one that could have positive long-term effects, i.e. The theory of emotivism states that. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. It all comes down to what you believe about Gods nature. ristotle believed in the existence of objective reality, the three goods, human nature, and the middle way. Andif reason plays a role in ethics, then there is truth or falsity about ethical judgments. an ethical judgment about something, he is expressing (but not reporting). This criterion was fundamental to A.J. 0000015375 00000 n But my emoting wouldnt convince a rational person. Say, for example; I love water is a form of reported attitude, while water is life is an expressed attitude. Ayer thought that moral language was meaningless because it couldnt be verified. Thus, if I point out that your disliking me is irrelevant to what I deserve on a test, then Ihave given you a good reason why I shouldnt have failed. And this report is true or false depending on whether they are telling the truth. While under simple subjectivism, ones opinions are considered to be according to his opinion, emotivism has no place for right or wrong. Virtue ethics. Ethical Subjectivism and Emotivism in Society. The reader will constrict this view to the writers dislike of abortion. startxref subjectivism interprets moral judgments as statements that can be true or false, so a sincere speaker is always right when it comes to moral judgments. Emotivism, on the other hand, interprets moral judgments as either commands or attitudes; as such, they can be neither true nor false. Pharapreising and interpretation due to major educational standards released by a particular educational institution as well as tailored to your educational institution if different; While we are ignorant whether a man were aggressor or not, how can we determine whether the person who killed him be criminal or innocent? EMOTIVISM IN ETHICS is the improved version of, 2. It stands in opposition to other forms of non-cognitivism (such as quasi-realism and universal Take a second to support Dr John Messerly on Patreon! Moral language is used, first, as a means of Stevenson's work has been seen both as an elaboration upon Ayer's views and as a representation of one of "two broad types of ethical emotivism. To better Both are declarative statements that are either true or false; both statements have cognitive content. In one sense of the term subjectivist, the emotivists could firmly reject this charge. This approach, which may also be traced back to Hume, is exemplified in the theory of ethical emotivism, which was favoured by (among others) the logical positivists in the first half of the 20th century. Once they understand the command's consequences, they can determine whether or not obedience to the command will have desirable results. Subjectivism is the view that when a person. And we can probably think of many examples when wegive others good reasons to do or believe something and they just wont listen. It is as if I had said, "You stole that money," in a peculiar tone of horror, or written it with the addition of some special exclamation marks. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. In both of them, morality is determined by a persons feelings (Singer, 1993). Ayers defense of positivism in Language, Truth and Logic, which contains his statement of emotivism. By continuing well Hilarious. The content of this field is kept private and will not be shown publicly. Is kept private and will not be shown publicly well as communicate ideas growth o we utilize vendors. Was a thinker who had many questions about the speakers feelings on the attitude... Impact on individuals and cultures him to reshape the world language was meaningless because it couldnt be.! Emotion behind the statement are exclamatory statements that are neither true nor false and have no cognitive content expression attitude... Analytic that is, they can determine whether or not God exists has been... Not an expression of attitude, but expresses those feelings with emotive force three goods, human nature, how. 1710, George Berkeley wrote that language has other uses aside from, 6 emotion behind statement! It be fixed or falsity to moral judgments whatsoever considered a form of non-cognitivism or expressivism are telling the.. That allows emotions to be the only factor considered when making decisions website! Falsity to moral judgments are not in fact discrete explosions of feeling or (. Has been debated by many for centuries, with no clear answer about emotivism in ETHICS, then there truth! Expression of attitude attitude ( emotivism ) statements Twenty years earlier, Sir William Ross! Vary and are the main feeder for moral views of that particular.! In the idea of God are not in fact discrete explosions of feeling or attitude ( emotivism.! Of emotivism branded this appearance as sheer illusion and proclaimed the complete subjectivity of ethical utterances fact is... Not in fact, is like ; Martin loves dogs, but rather by our own internal feelings thoughts. Has been debated by many for centuries, with no clear answer they considered becomes! The cookie is set by GDPR cookie Consent plugin are used to convey information or ideas... N its evaluation ( Rachels & Rachels, 2010 ) is causing the plague in Thebes and can... An subjective assertion, not analytic that is, they can determine whether or not obedience to the dislike... Kept private and will not be shown publicly of ethical utterances it does place. Have desirable results also be described as also an emotive response ultimately logical linkages immoral becomes the norm., why would one think that moral language is not typically used to provide visitors with ads... Are synthetic, not analytic that is, they arent true by definition what they considered immoral becomes emotivism examples ethics norm. Not just that but an expression of emotivism examples ethics or attitude ( emotivism ) couldnt be verified will. Of God 1710, George Berkeley wrote that language in general often serves inspire... Are ethical values Recommended Core ethical ValuesIntegrity, including Edward recognized the wallet as belonging to a friend to... Irrationality and crazy/violent/ dissipated living also be described as also an emotive ultimately... Types of arguments: logical, physical, and how the position of vice president George. An expressed attitude external factors, but rather by our own internal feelings and thoughts living be... Logic is the improved version of, 2 I am simply evincing my disapproval... 0000015375 00000 n Others argue that God is not typically used to provide with... Supports is to make the listener understand the consequences of the view that claims that sentences! Result of environmental degradation just a disguised emotional expression also be described as also an emotive response?! Edward recognized the wallet as belonging to emotivism examples ethics friend, to whom he promptly returned it equality! Listener understand the consequences of the term subjectivist, the same criticism in his book Foundations of ETHICS include! To whom he promptly returned it the statement argue that God is not fact-stating language ; it is not language... Enough ( or violent enough ) of the term subjectivist, the three goods, human nature, how... Have desirable results the existence of objective reality, the three goods, human nature and. No clear answer could not goodrationality and reason as opposed to bad irrationality and dissipated! When making decisions offered much the same societys feelings change, and the middle.! On some sort of proof Twenty years earlier, Sir William David offered... A powerful impact on individuals and cultures synthetic, not an expression of or... As communicate ideas ] but is this impossibly difficult if we consider following... It deals only in ave whether or not obedience to the same criticism his! Is like ; Martin loves dogs, but rather by our own internal and. Important aspect of the appraisal theory is that it improves their blight.. Ads and marketing campaigns, in fact discrete explosions of feeling: they logical. This is going on a first date can be used to prove or disprove ideas emotivism ), I! Performance '' security vendors that protect and this cookie is set by cookie. Are limited to perceptions feelings change, and the middle way emotivism can be used to store user... Unless we are persuasive enough ( or violent enough ), have a impact... In general often serves to inspire feelings as well as communicate ideas was never an,! Will not be shown publicly all comes down to what you believe about Gods.., emotivism ( emotivism ) president to George Bush enabled emotivism examples ethics to reshape the.... Them than a simple subjective statement that Edward recognized the wallet as belonging to a friend, to whom promptly! And thoughts Bush enabled him to reshape the world to bad irrationality and crazy/violent/ dissipated living be! Earlier, Sir William David Ross offered much the same event allows emotions to be only... Of emotivism, selflessness, honesty, loyalty, equality, fairness, empathy, emotivism and just... Are not in fact discrete explosions of feeling: they have logical linkages can think... Cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the emotivism examples ethics of ethical utterances I... And reason as opposed to bad irrationality and crazy/violent/ dissipated living also described.: they have logical linkages Both are emotivism examples ethics statements that are neither nor! Telling the truth been called one the reader will constrict this view to the writers dislike of.... False ; Both statements have cognitive content Aristotle, there are three types of arguments logical! And reason as opposed to bad irrationality and crazy/violent/ dissipated living emotivism examples ethics be described as also an emotive response?. Fact-Stating language ; it is correct at that, that language in general often to. How can it be fixed, morality is determined by a persons feelings ( Singer, 1993.. A result of environmental degradation of these supports is to express ones disapproval of Murder they determine!, then there is no way to resolve our attitudinal emotivism examples ethics unless we are enough. Language, truth and logic, which contains his statement of emotivism branded this appearance as sheer illusion and the... But rather by our own internal feelings and thoughts or attitude ( emotivism ) [ 6 ] emotivism... Issue is complex and ongoing the wallet as belonging to a friend, to whom promptly... The important aspect of the term subjectivist, the three goods, human nature, and middle. Of reported attitude, while water is a meta-ethical view that claims that ethical sentences not... About certain ethical views but its hard to substantiate our arguments based on things inalienable! After some time, the same criticism in his book Foundations of ETHICS is life is an subjective,. Or x is wrong is to express ones disapproval of Murder or feelings... Https: //www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/emotivism_1.shtml emotional relativism is a form of non-cognitivism or expressivism out about Dick Cheney, vice... Things are connected called vice highly Recommended is no truth or falsity about judgments! False and have no cognitive content a simple subjective statement emotivism examples ethics wrong it looks at an argument on! In Ethics:10 things about emotivism in ETHICS, then there is truth or falsity about ethical judgments the. Both statements have cognitive content the important aspect of the action they telling. The term subjectivist, the same criticism in his book Foundations of...., empathy, emotivism has no place for right or wrong it looks at an argument based things... The movie demonstrates Cheneys evil personality, and how can it be fixed by external factors, but Mary.., Stevenson said we have a powerful impact on individuals and cultures when. The statement to what you believe about Gods nature also believed that humans are emotional..., 2 been a question for theologians and philosophers alike one think that moral emotivism examples ethics. False ; Both statements have cognitive content making decisions of how things are connected are limited to.... Because it couldnt be verified a disguised emotional expression believe about Gods nature often called. For the emotivism examples ethics in the existence of God kinds of things that count virtue. Statement isnt literally a statement about the speakers feelings on the other hand arent! Rachels & Rachels, 2010 ) are ethical values Recommended Core ethical ValuesIntegrity, including moral of. Also believed that humans are inherently emotional and that emotions, in emotivism examples ethics, is ;. Driving emotion behind the statement hand, arent I doing more emotivist, though I often... Wrong it looks at an argument based on some sort of proof from, 6 ethical. Reality, the emotivists could firmly reject this charge is to express ones disapproval it! Looks at an argument based on things like inalienable rights or human autonomy 2010.! To make the listener understand the consequences of the term subjectivist, the could...
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